Everything below concerns GHRH receptor. We keep the language plain, cite what the science says, and separate well-supported claims from open questions.
Last reviewed on 2026-08-01. Where a claim depends on a specific study, the study is described rather than over-claimed.
The attached maleimide group explains the unusual duration of the DAC version. After injection it reacts with the thiol of cysteine-34 on serum albumin, forming a stable covalent bond. The resulting conjugate is too large for rapid kidney filtration and is shielded from many peptidases. Reported half-lives for this form reach several days, whereas the version without the group is cleared in roughly half an hour. That gap is the main pharmacological difference between the two.
Downstream of growth hormone, the liver and other tissues increase production of insulin-like growth factor 1, a mediator of many growth-promoting effects. Studies have documented elevated levels of both hormones after dosing, and the rise from the long-acting form persists longer than that produced by shorter-acting analogues. What remains unclear is whether sustained elevation of these markers translates into meaningful clinical benefit, and whether prolonged exposure carries risks that short trials could not detect.
The peptide backbone includes a D-alanine at position two, which resists cleavage by dipeptidyl peptidase IV, and several other substitutions that reduce degradation. Its molecular weight is roughly 3.4 kDa without the linker and about 3.6 kDa with it. The molecule is water soluble and is normally supplied as a lyophilized powder. Precise sequence and mass values depend on which variant is described, so technical documents usually state the exact form being referenced.
CJC-1295 is a synthetic peptide designed as a long-acting analogue of growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH). Its structure derives from the first 29 amino acids of native GHRH, a fragment often called GRF(1-29). Four substitutions were introduced to slow enzymatic breakdown and extend activity relative to the natural sequence. The compound was developed by ConjuChem as part of a broader effort to improve the pharmacokinetic profile of peptide hormones. It is studied in laboratory and clinical research settings rather than appearing as a naturally occurring substance.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Primary target | GHRH receptor | G-protein-coupled receptor on pituitary somatotrophs |
| Half-life, long-acting form | Several days | Extended by covalent albumin binding |
| Half-life, short form | About 30 minutes | Cleared rapidly by peptidases and kidneys |
| Route in studies | Subcutaneous injection | Used in the published human trials |
| Main measured effect | Rise in GH and IGF-1 | Surrogate markers rather than clinical endpoints |
Two related forms appear under the CJC-1295 name. The simpler analogue, commonly written as modified GRF(1-29), carries the four substitutions but no additional conjugation. The second form attaches a maleimidopropionic acid linker to a lysine residue, a modification frequently called the drug affinity complex. That linker reacts with the free thiol on serum albumin to form a covalent bond. Because albumin has a long residence time in blood, the conjugated peptide stays in circulation far longer than the unconjugated analogue.
Receptor level activity follows the canonical GHRH pathway. The peptide binds the GHRH receptor, a class B G protein coupled receptor on somatotroph cells of the anterior pituitary. Binding raises intracellular cyclic AMP, which promotes calcium entry and the release of growth hormone into the bloodstream. Because the molecule acts at the same receptor as the endogenous hormone, its effect is superimposed on the natural pulsatile rhythm rather than replacing it. Whether sustained receptor occupation leads to desensitization is not fully settled.
Binding to GHRH receptors on pituitary somatotroph cells triggers cyclic AMP signaling and stimulates growth hormone synthesis and release. Because the peptide acts upstream of the pituitary, effects are mediated through endogenous growth hormone rather than direct receptor activation in peripheral tissues. Increases in insulin-like growth factor 1 are generally described as a downstream consequence. Most published human exposure data come from small early-stage studies, and the clinical significance of the pharmacokinetic profile remains incompletely characterized.
CJC-1295 is a synthetic analogue of growth hormone-releasing hormone, built on the 29-amino-acid GHRH(1-29) fragment. Four substitutions distinguish it from the natural sequence: D-alanine at position 2, glutamine at position 8, alanine at position 15, and leucine at position 27. These changes reduce enzymatic cleavage and extend the peptide's persistence in circulation. The compound is discussed in two forms, one carrying a drug affinity complex and one without it.
Studies in this area generally track growth hormone pulses, insulin-like growth factor 1 concentrations, and occasionally body composition endpoints. Most published human data come from early, small trials, and questions about long-term effects remain open. Whether repeated exposure alters pituitary responsiveness over time is not settled. Analytical work relies on immunoassays for the hormones and on mass spectrometry for the peptide itself, because the two measurements answer different questions.
Binding of the peptide to the growth hormone-releasing hormone receptor on pituitary somatotrophs triggers a G protein coupled cascade that raises cyclic AMP and opens calcium channels. The result is greater secretion of growth hormone into the bloodstream. Because the peptide acts at the same receptor as the natural hypothalamic hormone, its effect is amplified pulse size rather than an entirely separate release pathway. Receptor binding alone does not determine the response, since somatostatin tone and other inputs modulate the final output.
=== Recreational use === Over-the-counter pseudoephedrine has been misused as a psychostimulant. Six case reports and one case series of pseudoephedrine misuse have been published as of 2021. There is a case report of self-medication with pseudoephedrine for treatment of depression.
Nevertheless, the resistance of extracellular matrix proteins to proteolysis renders their advanced glycation end products less conducive to being eliminated. While the AGE free adducts are released directly into the urine, AGE peptides are endocytosed by the epithelial cells of the proximal tubule and then degraded by the endolysosomal system to produce AGE amino acids. It is thought that these acids are then returned to the kidney's inside space, or lumen, for excretion. AGE free adducts are the major form through which AGEs are excreted in urine, with AGE-peptides occurring to a lesser extent but accumulating in the plasma of patients with chronic kidney failure. Larger, extracellularly derived AGE proteins cannot pass through the basement membrane of the renal corpuscle and must first be degraded into AGE peptides and AGE free adducts. Peripheral macrophage as well as liver sinusoidal endothelial cells and Kupffer cells have been implicated in this process, although the real-life involvement of the liver has been disputed.
=== Atomic === Lawrencium has three valence electrons: the 5f electrons are in the atomic core. In 1970, it was predicted that the ground-state electron configuration of lawrencium was [Rn]5f146d17s2 (ground state term symbol 2D3/2), per the Aufbau principle and conforming to the [Xe]4f145d16s2 configuration of lawrencium's lighter homolog lutetium. But the next year, calculations were published that questioned this prediction, instead expecting an anomalous [Rn]5f147s27p1 configuration. Though early calculations gave conflicting results, more recent studies and calculations confirm the s2p suggestion. 1974 relativistic calculations concluded that the energy difference between the two configurations was small and that it was uncertain which was the ground state. Later 1995 calculations concluded that the s2p configuration should be energetically favored, because the spherical s and p1/2 orbitals are nearest to the atomic nucleus and thus move quickly enough that their relativistic mass increases significantly. In 1988, a team of scientists led by Eichler calculated that lawrencium's enthalpy of adsorption on metal sources would differ enough depending on its electron configuration that it would be feasible to carry out experiments to exploit this fact to measure lawrencium's electron configuration. The s2p configuration was expected to be more volatile than the s2d configuration, and be more similar to that of the p-block element lead.
There are numerous signals given off that initiate hunger. There are environmental signals, signals from the gastrointestinal system, and metabolic signals that trigger hunger. The environmental signals come from the body's senses. The feeling of hunger could be triggered by the smell and thought of food, the sight of a plate, or hearing someone talk about food. The signals from the stomach are initiated by the release of the peptide hormone ghrelin. Ghrelin is a hormone that increases appetite by signaling to the brain that a person is hungry. Environmental signals and ghrelin are not the only signals that initiate hunger, there are other metabolic signals as well. As time passes between meals, the body starts to take nutrients from long-term reservoirs. When the glucose levels of cells drop (glucoprivation), the body starts to produce the feeling of hunger. The body also stimulates eating by detecting a drop in cellular lipid levels (lipoprivation). Both the brain and the liver monitor the levels of metabolic fuels. The brain checks for glucoprivation on its side of the blood–brain barrier (since glucose is its fuel), while the liver monitors the rest of the body for both lipoprivation and glucoprivation.
== Further reading == Griffith, Francis Llewellyn; Mitchell, John Malcolm (1911). "Sphinx" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 25 (11th ed.). pp. 662–663. Dessenne, André. La Sphinx: Étude iconographique (in French). De Boccard, 1957.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Tanks === Centurion – main British early Cold War tank. Conqueror – used from mid 50s to mid 60s to give long range anti-tank support to Centurions. Built to counter IS-3. Chieftain – main British tank of Cold War and mid Cold War. Challenger 1 – Main British tank late Cold War or 1980s.
For services to Library and Information Services in Wales. George Norman Wilson, Vice-Chairman, Peak Park Joint Planning Board, Peak District National Park. For services to Local Government. Monica Wilson. For services to disabled people. Primrose Eileen Wilson. For services to Conservation. Anthony Webbe Winkle. For services to the Construction Industry in Scotland. Samuel Derek Woods. For public service. Diplomatic Service and Overseas List Norma Alice Cox Astwood, Vice-President, The Senate, Bermuda. David John Franklin Burton, Director, British Council, Jordan. The Honourable William McKeeva Bush, , Minister of Community Development, Sports, Women's and Youth Affairs and Culture, Cayman Islands. Alfred Chappory, . For services to sport in Gibraltar. Chen Din-hwa. For charitable and community services in Hong Kong. Joan Collins. For services to drama. Michael John Cooper, Principal, British School in the Netherlands. William Montgomerie Courtauld. For services to British commercial interests in Hong Kong. Thomas Eddie Cowin, lately Director, British Council, Ghana. Anthony Campbell Crombie, Deputy Head of Mission, Belgrade. Christopher Tom Franklin. For services to British musical interests in France. Robert John Gladwell. For services to British commercial and aerospace interests in the United States of America. Stuart Wreford Harbinson, , Permanent Hong Kong Representative to the World Trade Organization, Geneva. Peter Anthony Jenner, lately Editor, NATO Review. Sarah Caroline Rowland Jones, , lately First Secretary, HM Embassy, Budapest. Masood Husain Khan.
Oftentimes, for women treating acne, spironolactone is prescribed and paired with a birth control pill. Positive results in the pairing of these two medications have been observed, although these results may not be seen for up to three months. Spironolactone has been reported to produce a 50 to 100% improvement in acne at sufficiently high doses. Response to treatment generally requires 1 to 3 months in the case of acne and up to 6 months in the case of hirsutism. Ongoing therapy is generally required to avoid relapse of symptoms. Spironolactone is commonly used in the treatment of hirsutism in women, and is considered to be a first-line antiandrogen for this indication. Spironolactone can be used in the treatment of female-pattern hair loss (pattern scalp hair loss in women). There is tentative low quality evidence supporting its use for this indication. Antiandrogens such as spironolactone are male-specific teratogens, which can feminize male fetuses due to their antiandrogenic effects. For this reason, antiandrogens are recommended only to be used to treat women who are of reproductive age in conjunction with adequate contraception. Oral contraceptives, which contain an estrogen and a progestin, are typically used for this purpose. Moreover, oral contraceptives themselves are functional antiandrogens and are independently effective in the treatment of androgen-dependent skin and hair conditions, hence can significantly augment the effectiveness of antiandrogens in the treatment of such conditions.
=== 17 May === The Security Service of Ukraine identified and charged six individuals with "illegally disseminating" information about Ukrainian air defences in Kyiv. These individuals took videos of Ukrainian air defences in action then posted them on social media sites such as YouTube. Such information, the SBU alleged, could be used to make Russian strikes more accurate. The penalty for such a charge was five to eight years imprisonment. Russia's defence ministry claimed its forces had destroyed a British-made L-119 howitzer in Ukraine according to a report by state news agency TASS. It also claimed to have struck an ammunition depot in Mykolaiv. The DSM Capella, the last ship to sail under the Black Sea Grain Initiative before its expected expiration on 18 May, left the Ukrainian port of Chornomorsk carrying 30,000 tonnes of corn bound for Turkey. Shortly afterwards, Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan said that the grain exportation deal between Ukraine and Russia had been extended for two more months. Both Russia and Ukraine welcomed the extension. A child and two others were reported to have been killed and three people were injured after a Russian shell struck outside a shop in Zelenivka, Kherson Oblast. In Donetsk, the city's Russian-backed mayor claimed Ukrainian shelling left five dead and 15 injured.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Selected publications == Góngora-Benítez M, Tulla-Puche J, Albericio F (2014). Multifaceted roles of disulfide bonds. Peptides as therapeutics. Chemical Reviews. doi:10.1021/Cr400031Z Subirós-Funosas R, Prohens R, Barbas R, El-Faham A, Albericio F (2010). Oxyma: an efficient additive for peptide synthesis to replace the benzotriazole-based HOBt and HOAt with a lower risk of explosion. Chemistry (Weinheim An Der Bergstrasse, Germany). doi:10.1002/Chem.200900614 Ruiz-Sanchis P, Savina SA, Albericio F, Álvarez M. Structure, bioactivity and synthesis of natural products with hexahydropyrrolo[2,3-b]indole. Chemistry (Weinheim An Der Bergstrasse, Germany). doi:10.1002/Chem.201001451 El-Faham A, Albericio F (2011). Peptide coupling reagents, more than a letter soup. Chemical Reviews. 111: 6557-602. doi:10.1021/Cr100048W Isidro-Llobet A, Alvarez M, Albericio F (2009). Amino acid-protecting groups. Chemical Reviews. doi:10.1021/Cr800323S Bruckdorfer T, Marder O, Albericio F (2004). From production of peptides in milligram amounts for research to multi-tons quantities for drugs of the future. Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology. doi:10.2174/1389201043489620
=== 20th-century use === Opium production in China and the rest of East Asia was nearly wiped out after WWII; however, sustained covert support by the United States Central Intelligence Agency for the Thai Northern Army and the Chinese Nationalist Kuomintang army invading Burma facilitated production and trafficking of the drug from Southeast Asia for decades, with the region becoming a major source of world supplies. During the Communist era in Eastern Europe, poppy stalks sold in bundles by farmers were processed by users with household chemicals to make kompot ("Polish heroin"), and poppy seeds were used to produce koknar, an opiate.
SR-BII (Scavenger Receptor Class B Type II): SR-BII, similar to SR-BI, is involved in lipid transfer and also binds AGEs. It plays a role in mediating the uptake of AGE-modified proteins and helps reduce cellular stress caused by AGEs. By participating in lipid metabolism and AGE clearance, SR-BII contributes to mitigating oxidative damage and supporting cellular homeostasis. DC-SIGN (Dendritic Cell-Specific Intercellular Adhesion Molecule-3-Grabbing Non-integrin): DC-SIGN is a receptor expressed on dendritic cells and is primarily involved in pathogen recognition and immune responses. Recent research suggests that DC-SIGN can also bind AGEs and mediate their clearance, which helps reduce AGE-induced immune activation. By modulating the immune response to AGEs, DC-SIGN plays a role in maintaining immune homeostasis and preventing chronic inflammation associated with AGE accumulation.
Atmoun in 2019 brokered a deal between Morocco's foreign intelligence agency, Direction générale des études et de la documentation (DGED) and Panzeri and his colleague Francesco Giorgi, whereby the two would each receive €50,000 a year for lobbying on behalf of Morocco. Marie Arena, head of the subcommittee on human rights comes into the Morocco scene, Atmoun invited Arena and Panzeri to Morocco in January 2022. Giorgi reported that he and Panzeri billed Atmoun for ensuring that mentions of Morocco vanished from a Parliament report on human rights violations. Later in 2022 Arena's son, Ugo Lemaire went on a trip to Morocco, paid for by a Moroccan company. Andrea Cozzolino also appears in the Morocco investigation, he was part of the committee investigating Morocco's use of spyware and was chair of the Parliament's Maghreb delegation coordinating the EU interaction with North African countries. Cozzolino and Atmoun met with Morocco's DGED in Warsaw. In September 2022, 4 Brussels MPs – David Leisterh, David Weytsman, Clémentine Barzin, and Gaëtan Van Goidsenhoven – visited the city of Laâyoune in Western Sahara. The Moroccan parliament had invited the MEPs and paid for the entire trip. Western Sahara is a disputed region, which Morocco claims to be its own. However, after the Belgium investigation opened, the MEPs' trip came under greater scrutiny.
This text states that if "you don't get attracted, grasp, and commit to the notion 'my self', you'll have no doubt or uncertainty that what arises is just suffering arising, and what ceases is just suffering ceasing." Similarly, the Mahānidānasutta (DN 15) associates understanding dependent origination with abandoning various wrong views about a self, while failing to understand it is associated becoming entangled in these views. Another sutra, SĀ 297, states that dependent origination is "the Dharma Discourse on Great Emptiness", and then proceeds to refute numerous forms of "self-view" (ātmadṛṣṭi). SN 12:12 (parallel at SĀ 372) the Buddha is asked a series of questions about the self (who feels? who craves? etc.), the Buddha states that these questions are invalid, and instead teaches dependent origination. SĀ 80 also discusses an important meditative attainment called the emptiness concentration (śūnyatāsamādhi) which in this text is associated contemplating how phenomena arise due to conditions and are subject to cessation.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
It binds the growth hormone-releasing hormone receptor on pituitary somatotroph cells. Receptor activation raises cyclic AMP and promotes release of stored growth hormone granules. Because the peptide persists longer than natural releasing hormone, stimulation is prolonged rather than brief.
The drug affinity complex links the peptide to serum albumin through a covalent bond. The conjugate is too large to be filtered quickly by the kidneys and is shielded from enzymatic breakdown. This extends the apparent half-life from roughly minutes to several days.
Long-term safety and any clinical benefit are unestablished. Published human data cover small groups over limited periods and focus on hormone levels rather than health outcomes. Whether prolonged elevation of growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor 1 is beneficial or harmful is an open question.
No. It is a synthetic analogue modeled on the first 29 residues of human GHRH. The substitutions and any linker are laboratory modifications rather than features of the endogenous peptide.